Excerpts from Giulio Marinetti,Aquila Reborn: Italy in the Second World War (Rome, 2011)*
A 2011 history book by Giulio Marinetti, Aquila Reborn is an analytical account of the history of Italy during WW2, with somewhat detailed descriptions of the economic, social, political and military aspects of the Kingdom of Italy from the interwar period to the surrender of the Italian Social Republic to the United Nations. Due to the mostly unbiased nature of the work, it is read widely across both the Communist International and the Alliance of Free States.
High Ambitions
The Kingdom of Italy had deeply desired to be a great power after its formation. But due to the unfortunately late unification of Italy, this was not to be, with Eritrea and Somaliland being the only gains from the Scramble for Africa. Attempts to expand on this by invading Ethiopia had proved to be a colossal humiliation, with the armies of Menelik II inflicting a crushing defeat on the Regio Esercito at Adwa. At the end of the 19th century, they would gain the city of Tianjin as a concession from the Qing after participating in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion, but it was hardly a consolation prize considering how the Chinese had rejected prior demands by Italy to cede Sanmen Bay.
……..
Italy’s victory against the Ottoman Empire in 1912 had put the country in a difficult position. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary were displeased, due to both of them viewing the Ottomans as a potential ally. France still viewed Italy negatively, and the United Kingdom’s patience with them was running out. The occupation of the Dodecanese Islands did little to improve the situation.
When war broke out, Italy dithered for a while, eventually deciding to negotiate with the Triple Entente after the nationalists declared, “Enough of Libya, and on to Trento and Trieste! ”. The Treaty of London was the bait used to convince the Italians to switch sides. It was but the start of a series of deceptions to cut down Italy’s colonial ambitions.
As is well known, the Great War did not go well for Italy, not the least because of Cadorna’s disastrous and incompetent handling of the war effort, but also due to the Entente being indifferent to the Italian front. The heavy defeats and pyrrhic victories would all be for nothing, as Woodrow Wilson’s insistence on the right to national self-determination rendered the Treaty of London null and void, with Britain and France choosing to divide the spoils of war amongst themselves, having little intention of giving any of it to Italy. The anger at this “mutilated victory” was immense, as the nationalists viciously denounced Britain, France and America.
……..
The acquiescence of Orlando to the Treaty of Versailles provoked a nationwide uproar, and Giolitti was by no means capable of defusing the situation, as by 1921, he was already begging the PNF for help in taking on the strong socialist opposition to the government. By doing so, he had sounded the death knell of liberalism in Italy, as the Fascists marched on Rome the very next year and Mussolini was appointed Prime Minister by King Vittorio Emanuele III.
The first signs that the new regime would be troublesome came after the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne. The Treaty of Sèvres was the last hope of Italy getting compensation for its efforts in World War I, but the Turkish War of Independence and the subsequent renegotiations had wrecked those hopes. A livid Mussolini responded by ordering a bombardment and occupation of Corfu, in response to the mysterious death of Generale Enrico Tellini. The Corfu Incident was the first success of Fascist Italy’s foreign policy, and helped boost Mussolini’s reputation in Italy, while dealing a blow to the League of Nations, and forcing Britain to resolve the Jubaland question in 1924.
One particular theme that stood out in Mussolini’s speeches during the late 1920’s was the old Roman concept of Mare Nostrum , “our sea” in Latin. To challenge France and Britain, Italy had to become the dominant power in the Mediterranean and consequently gain access to the Atlantic and Indian oceans, thus securing its national sovereignty. This would be elaborated in depth in a document drawn up in 1929, “The March to the Oceans”, which asserted that maritime position determined a nation’s independence: countries with free access to the high seas were independent; while those who lacked this, were not. Italy, which only had access to an inland sea without French and British acquiescence, was only a “semi-independent nation” at best, and allegedly a “prisoner in the Mediterranean”. In the text, Mussolini noted,
“The bars of this prison are Corsica, Tunisia, Malta, and Cyprus. The guards of this prison are Gibraltar and Suez. Corsica is a pistol pointed at the heart of Italy; Tunisia at Sicily. Malta and Cyprus constitute a threat to all our positions in the eastern and western Mediterranean. Greece, and Egypt have been ready to form a chain with Great Britain, with our alliance with Turkey preventing the completion of the politico-military encirclement of Italy. Thus Greece and Egypt must be considered vital enemies of Italy’s expansion … The aim of Italian policy, which cannot have, and does not have continental objectives of a European territorial nature except Albania, is first of all to break the bars of this prison … Once the bars are broken, Italian policy can only have one motto – to march to the oceans. ”
It is good to be ambitious, but one also must be aware of their strength and capability to act on it as well. After all, Italy was the runt of the global powers. With significant shortcomings as to manpower and industry, one could very reasonably question Italy’s ambitions. Indeed, this was simply bluster and bluff, as the PNF settled down and consolidated their regime. The Fascist regime would remain restricted to the Apennine Peninsula for the time being.
……..
The 1930’s were like a period of near-limitless fortune for Italy, starting with the discovery of oil in Libya. Hitherto considered to be little more than a sandbox, the rich oil reserves cemented its place as the crown jewel of the Italian Empire. The Italian government left no stone unturned in order to tap this vital resource, encouraging settlers with lucrative incentives. Additionally, in the aftermath of the Second American Revolution, many White American expatriates fled the newly formed United Republics, bringing with them their assets and experience in various fields. Along with the United Kingdom - being fearful of Communist encirclement - loosening its purse strings, the Fascists suddenly found themselves with a torrential influx of funds and resources. Finally, the Italians found themselves in negotiations with the French, something that was considered unlikely in the last decade. The result was a period of unprecedented economic prosperity for Italy, as the lot of the average Italian improved considerably, with even the Mezzogiorno reaping the benefits.
After 1933, a new pattern began to emerge in the speeches given by Mussolini. He began to speak regularly of a “Third Rome”, one of the Fascists, that would succeed the Rome of the Caesars and the Rome of the Popes. It would seem bewildering at first to most, but once one managed to get past the layers of verbose oratory, it was clearly evident that Il Duce was attempting to assert the cultural superiority of Italy over the rest of Europe. After all, had not the Roman Empire civilized Europe when much of the continent was still in darkness, and in the process, built one of the largest empires the world had seen? And, had not the Renaissance originated in Italy, bringing a new lease of life to Europe? Thus, did not Italy deserve to lead the fascist bloc, seeing that it was the first truly fascist state as well? Even if the Führer established his Großgermanisches Reich , even if the Kampaku established his Co-Prosperity Sphere and even if the Caudillo s of South America built up their own little hegemonies, they would have to look to Italy for guidance, for after all, the 20th century would be an Italian one.
……..
The doctrine of Mediterraneanism and the “Mediterranean race” grew to dominate the PNF during the mid and late 1930’s, primarily as a reaction to the Nordicist policies of the NSDAP and Germany and also to set themselves apart from “the barbaric descendants of Alaric, who burned and sacked one of the greatest cities on earth”.(1) Based primarily on Giuseppe Sergi’s highly-debated work, the Mediterraneanists saw themselves to be the superior race, not from a bioracist perspective unlike the Nazis, but a cultural one. Similarly to the Concordists and Turanists, the Fascists considered race to be a cultural and political construct, and felt that physical race could be overcome by cultural assimilation. This proved to be deeply unpalatable to the Nazi leadership, with Goebbels commenting in private that “the Italians are rather too fond of mongrelization”. Similarly, Acerbo said that “the ancestors of our political allies to the north were but mere barbarians when the Romans were busy spreading civilization to Europe”. This sentiment held firm, and by 1939, most of the PNF followed in the example of Acerbo, Balbo and Ciano and became staunch Mediterraneanists (1), with a handful of exceptions, like Giulio Evola and Roberto Farinacci.
Preparing for War
The three branches of the Italian military saw a massive opportunity to benefit from the economic boom that the country was undergoing, and thus, with their budgets significantly expanded, the Supermarina , the Superaereo and the Superesercito embarked upon a crash modernization program to improve the armed forces. Among them, the conflict in the Regia Marina over this issue was indicative of the new direction the armed forces was taking, as well as a further consolidation of the PNF’s power over the military.
After 1922, it had been widely assumed that France and Great Britain would be the most likely adversaries in any potential conflict, not the least because of the Fascist regime’s hostility to them. As a result, the Royal Italian Navy received considerable funding and developed warships with long-range guns and high speeds, to be able to engage and disengage at will. Attention was given to submarines and submersibles as well. The Royal Italian Air Force also benefited from an appreciable funds infusion, due to it being a vital cog of the PNF’s propaganda machine. The Royal Italian Army was thus forced to make do with whatever remained after the first two services had gotten their funding.
The Second American Civil War tore up this strategic calculus and forced a re-evaluation of the geopolitical situation. The United Kingdom and France were more concerned with the possibility of communist revolution in their own lands, and thus, were ready to do anything to stop the red tide. But Italy would have to make very significant progress in modernizing her military, if she was to make any meaningful contribution to the great anti-communist crusade that was imminent. The Regia Marina had to contend with the WFRN and the RKKF, most probably with the help of the Kriegsmarine , the Royal Navy and the Marine Nationale , and was not exactly up to date. The Regia Aeronautica was full of biplanes at a time when monoplane development was picking up the pace among the great powers. The Regio Esercito was no better.
The Supermarina began by sending naval delegations to Britain and Japan to get a better idea of modern naval construction and technology. These visits played a big role in determining the new strategic direction of the navy, with Ammiraglio Bernotti pushing for the construction of aircraft carriers, which he and his proteges, Giuseppe Fioravanzo and Francesco Maugeri saw as the future of naval warfare and likely to supplant the battleship in its role in due time. However, this idea was too radical for the then Chief of Staff of the Regia Marina , Ammiraglio Cavagnari.
Known to be notoriously conservative and suspicious regarding new naval theories and technologies, Cavagnari left no stone unturned to prevent the designing of an aircraft carrier class, but his hopes were dashed by the Prime Minister himself, who after listening to both sides, asked for “four to five aircraft carriers that will be the envy of our neighbors and the fear of the Bolsheviks”. This led to the development of what would be known as the Imperatore Romano -class aircraft carrier, the backbone of La Manos , the Rengō Kantai of the West to many. The four vessels of this class, Augusto Cesare , Domiziano , Claudio and Traiano , along with the converted passenger liner Aquila , were the fingers of the hand that would help chase the Royal Navy out of the Mediterranean in 1942.
……..
Feeling disgraced over what he perceived as a snub to him, Cavagnari launched an unprecedented attack on Bernotti at the next meeting of the Supermarina , decrying the “nefarious attempt to weaken our mighty fleet by playing around with unproven ideas”. Bernotti shot back, saying that “we cannot win the war that will inevitably come in the future by relying on methods and weapons that served us well in the past”. From there, the quarrel worsened, with barbs being traded back and forth. It would culminate in Fioravanzo and Maugeri writing a letter to Mussolini, asking for Cavagnari’s dismissal. The missive had the desired effect, with Cavagnari being replaced by Bernotti as the new Chief of Naval Staff on April 19, 1936. Angelo Iachino would take his place as commandant of the Livorno Naval Academy. As a warning to the rest of the old guard and their followers, Cavagnari was put under house arrest by the OVRA.
The Cavagnari Affair sent shockwaves through the conservative elements of the Italian military brass, and very nearly put the Fascist regime on the verge of a military coup d’etat. The former Maggior Generale , Emilio de Bono, was infuriated at what he felt to be a “hijacking of the military command structure by a group of young upstarts, who were no more than theoretical warriors and understood little of actual combat”. Concerned and convinced that the Italian military was going in a dangerous direction, de Bono put to use his influence as a Quadrumvir and reached out to the senior officers and commanders across the three services, intending to execute a Pronunciamiento against Mussolini. The idea was to take the PNF’s leadership into custody, and declare martial law. The Royal Family would be coerced into aiding them in the takeover of power. However, the coup was nipped in the bud due to Graziani passing on a telegram on April 29, 1936 to the OVRA and the Grand Council of Fascism. On learning of the plot, an incensed Mussolini ordered the conspirators arrested and executed after a drumhead court-martial determined their guilt. Badoglio had been non-committal after de Bono had talked to him, and had at no point made any promises, which ensured his safety, but put him under increased scrutiny until the end of the Second World War. As a reward for his loyalty, Graziani would be appointed as the next Chief of Army Staff.
In the aftermath of the abortive de Bono Putsch, Mussolini wanted better control over the military. He gave carte blanche to the heads of the three services, Graziani, Bernotti and Balbo to root out “politically untrustworthy and potentially treasonous elements” from the armed forces. What followed afterwards was not so much a purge as it was a deweeding, as younger officers, who were more sympathetic to the plans for modernization and more politically reliable came to the forefront, sidelining the old guard. This process of deweeding continued throughout the year, and by mid-1937, Bernotti, Balbo and Graziani had effectively cleansed the Regia Marina , Regia Aeronautica and the Regio Esercito of their rivals as well as the old guard’s supporters.
……..
The Spanish Civil War, which has been considered to be the laboratory of military technologies and theories of the 1930’s, went a long way in shaping the Regio Esercito and the Regia Aeronautica. The Corpo Truppe Volontarie and the Aviazione Legionaria entered Spain armed with light tankettes and biplanes that would not stay up to date for long. The Fiat CR.32 was a very good aircraft and frequently outclassed its opposition in the I-15 biplanes and I-16 monoplanes flown by the Republican Air Force. But the Superaereo , having observed the test flights of the newly developed WC.200 Grifone (2), an advanced monoplane that would go on to become the Regia Aeronautica ‘s workhorse, was starting to reconsider the utility of the biplane, even after the glowing after-action reports submitted by the Aviazione Legionaria ‘s pilots.
The L3/35 tankettes of the CTV were grossly outclassed by the Soviet-origin T-26 and BT-5 tanks of the Republicans. The T-26 and the BT-5 tended to destroy any L3’s they encountered fairly easily with their 45 mm guns. This shock was what prompted the development of the P26/38 (3) and P24/38 (4) medium tank designs that went on to serve the Regio Esercito well in the future. The L3/35 would be phased out for good, its role taken up by the M15/37 light tank.
Meanwhile, the Regia Marina was seeking powerful new vessels to accompany its force of carriers. The formidable Littorio -class battleship, which gave the Royal Navy a lot of grief during the first few months of the war against the FBU, was redesigned completely after the Second American Civil War, with the Supermarina stressing the need for a primary armament of 16-inch guns as compared to the 15-inch gun configuration in the earlier design. Disregarding the concerns of the engineers at OTO and Ansaldo, Iachino is regarded to have said, “I don’t care if you have to beg, borrow, cheat, steal, rob or kill, the battleships must have 16-inch guns!” Fortunately, they did not need to go that far, as the Japanese agreed to a request to produce their 41 cm/45 3rd Year Type naval gun under a license, after a similar request to the British to license-produce their BL 16-inch Mark I naval gun was turned down.
……..
In spite of the grandiose shows of solidarity, the military cooperation between Italy and Germany was not as warm as the propaganda would have one believe, with submarines, tanks and (to some extent) aircraft being the main areas where Rome sought Berlin’s advice. This has led to some speculation, but the simple explanation is that an anti-German sentiment was slowly taking root in the higher echelons of the Italian military. The Superaereo , in particular, was a hotbed for such opinions, in no small part due to Balbo’s personal influence. The Supermarina followed suit, due mostly to Bernotti having a poor opinion of the German admiralty, and Raeder leaving a most disagreeable impression on him when they met. The Superesercito was amenable to the OKH, but Graziani’s abrasive manners meant that few German generals were willing to work or talk with him.
The Trident Offensive
By early 1942, the Second World War had considerably slowed down for the Axis. Progress in invading the Soviet Union was facing high levels of attrition, in no small part due to INTREV defenses stiffening up and a semblance of order spreading through their forces. A not-insignificant part of the Soviet industry had been relocated to the Urals, ensuring that the soldiers of the Comintern would still be receiving arms and munitions and be able to continue the fight. In South America, Brazil’s initial successes had gotten bogged down, as the Latin American members of the Vladivostok Compact put up a tenacious, unflinching defense, determined to bleed the Integralists and their minions dry for each inch of ground they took. However, the news that Pétain intended to overthrow the Popular Front government in a coup d’etat gave the Pact of Steel renewed hope, allowing them to bring France into the war and open a new front against the Comintern. But in considering the benefits of this gambit, the Stahlpakt also had to take into account the elephant in the room.
The British Empire, a hegemonic colonial power spanning the globe, had been the biggest guarantor and indirect supporter of the Anti-ComIntern Axis ever since the Red May Revolution had driven them into a frenzy. They had bankrolled, either directly or indirectly, the German rearmament programme and the Italian and Japanese armament programmes. Trade with them had risen to unprecedented levels, giving the enemies of Communism a fresh lease of life. Now, with a stroke of the pen, this profitable arrangement would be sunk. The entirety of the Commonwealth would be up in arms against them. To stymie them, complete Axis control of the Mediterranean was vital. Thus, after Pétain’s telegram was forwarded to Rome, the Comando Supremo began to formulate a plan to secure control of “Mare Nostrum ”. Three targets of importance were marked, which had to be captured to guarantee success: Malta, the erstwhile headquarters of the Mediterranean Fleet and now a British observation post; Egypt, which was home to the Suez Canal, the eastern accessway to the Mediterranean, and Alexandria, the new headquarters of the Mediterranean Fleet; and finally, British Somaliland, which overlooked the Red Sea and posed a threat to Italian East Africa.
The Watcher’s Post
A tiny island in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, Malta had a level of importance that was not commensurate with its size, having been the headquarters of the Royal Navy’s Mediterranean Fleet up to the early 1930’s. Its position between Sicily and Libya allowed the Royal Navy a vantage point from where they could easily keep an eye on the Regia Marina. However, after 1933, more assets of the Royal Navy would be redeployed to the Home Islands, and the Mediterranean Fleet would shift their HQ to Alexandria, diminishing the island chain’s importance in one fell swoop. Over the second half of the 1930’s, the stationed garrison was progressively trimmed down and put on a low priority for reinforcements and resupplying. The Admiralty felt that due to the excellent relations with the Italians, they could get away with leaving a skeleton force on Malta. They could not have been more mistaken than that.
As the situation stood, in 1942, the garrison was down to 15 infantry battalions (11 Commonwealth, 4 Maltese) organized into four brigades totalling 26,000 men. Tank support was provided by the 1st Independent Troop of the Royal Tank Regiment, disembarked in November 1941, which was initially equipped with four Matilda II infantry tanks and two Hussar I light tanks, armed with 2-pounder guns (part of detachments from the 7th Royal Tank Regiment and the 3rd The King’s Own Hussars). These were reinforced in January 1942 by four Cruiser Mk I and three Cruiser Mk IV tanks and a Hussar I light tank - all of them armed with 2-pounder guns (part of a detachment from the 6th Royal Tank Regiment).
For artillery support, the defenders could count on the 12th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery with twenty-four 25-pounder (3.45 in (87.6 mm)) field guns, capable of providing fire support out to a range of 6.8 mi (11 km) and covering most of the island while remaining in protected static positions. Malta’s fixed defenses included nineteen heavy coastal guns (varying in size from 12-inch to 16-inch, although these Victorian era weapons were all decommissioned), 130 smaller coastal guns (6-pounder to 9.2-inch) and 112 heavy and 144 light anti-aircraft guns.
The plan of invasion called for naval landings and paradrops on the main island of Malta, supported by a secondary naval landing on the smaller islands of Gozo and Comino. The paradrops would be executed by the Italian 185th Paratrooper Division “Folgore ” and the 186th Paratrooper Division “Tifone ” (5) (each having 7,500 men) and the German Fliegerdivision 7 (11,000 men). The first wave of the naval invasion force was comprised of the 20th Infantry Division “Friuli ” (10,000 men) and the 4th Infantry Division ” Livorno ” (9,850 men) , along with two battalions drawn from the Regia Aeronautica , two battalions of Nuotatori marine commandos of the San Marco regiment and three Blackshirt battalions.
The follow-up convoy would be mainly made up of troops from the Italian XVI Corps: the 26th Infantry Division “Assietta ” (9,000 men), the 54th Infantry Division “Napoli ” (8,900 men), artillery units (3,200 men) and the remainder of the 10th Armored Regiment (3,800 men). The 1st Infantry Division “Superga ” (9,200 men) plus a battalion of Blackshirts and 1,000 Nuotatori were to be in position to land on the smaller island of Gozo in the early hours of the second day.
The Regia Marina would provide gunfire support and hold off the Royal Navy while the invasion took fire, with the older Andrea Doria -class battleships being designated for shore bombardment, and the newer Littorio -class battleships keeping a watch for the Mediterranean Fleet, while remaining close enough to provide gunfire support, if needed. Due to their ships being outfitted with radars of very good quality, and having trained in night-time carrier operations with the IJN, the Supermarina were confident of victory, especially with the Regia Aeronautica to provide support from Sicily.
The Gateway to the East
Egypt was one of the British Empire’s most important Mediterranean possessions, in no small part due to the Suez Canal and the Mediterranean Fleet’s headquarters being at Alexandria. The Suez Canal’s importance to global trade and commerce could simply not be underestimated and definitely needs no explanation. It was for this very reason that the Comando Supremo sought to seize Egypt, and kill two birds with one stone: with the Isthmus of Suez under their control, Britain would have little choice but to ship in troops and supplies via the long road, passing South Africa and the Cape of Good Hope, after the Mediterranean Fleet was beaten up and chased out.
The British Eighth Army, which was stationed in Egypt at the time, was appreciably understrength and on a low priority for reinforcements and resupplying, being equipped mostly with the Matilda II infantry tank. The newer Chimera and Daphne tanks were also present, albeit in small numbers. The RAF squadrons in the area were equipped with Spitfire Mk Vb and Hurricane Mk IIB fighters - rather capable aircraft in their own right.
Facing them was the Italian 10th Army, deployed in Libya since 1939 as a security measure to solidify control of Libya. Naturally, they were well-equipped, with fresh M15/37 and P24/38 tanks. The Regia Aeronautica squadrons in Libya were mostly equipped with the WC.200 Grifone , a formidable fighter that could go toe to toe with the Spitfire. However, a new aircraft had started to make its way to the airfields in Cyrenaica, one which the British were unaware of.
The plan was for a rapid strike through the Matruh Governorate, overrunning the inadequate defenses at Sidi Barrani and quickly seizing Mersa Matruh, eventually engaging the bulk of the enemy at El Alamein and Al-Iskandariya, which would open up the way to the Isthmus of Suez and the Sinai, allowing for an offensive into Mandatory Palestine.
The Neglected Sentry
A minor protectorate with no resources worth speaking of, it was no surprise that British Somaliland was always among the last to receive the Empire’s favors. Its primary purpose was to provide meat for the Crown Colony of Aden, and the lack of interest whatsoever in developing the region meant the “butcher shop of Aden” was not exactly worth the trouble holding on to, especially considering the opposition of the local populace to taxation, which could have helped with supporting the local colonial administration, and also aided the colony to become economically self-sufficient.
By the beginning of May, the colony was on high alert due to a successful Pétainist uprising in French Somaliland. The hegemonic presence of Italian East Africa to the south only served to heighten the feeling of nervousness in Berbera. To make matters even worse, the Servizio Informazioni Militare had cracked high level ciphers of the Middle East Command, giving the Italians an intelligence advantage.
Having exchanged telegrams with Général Gaëtan Germain, the governor of French Somaliland, the Duke of Aosta was confident of rapidly overrunning the meager defenses in British Somaliland. Indeed, after the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, the War Office had been contemplating not offering any resistance in the event that the colony was invaded. There had been an attempt to reinforce the territory, but it had been shot down. Thus, the British found themselves trying to hold on the passes at Jirreh, Dobo, Hargeisa and Burao with minimal troops, while the Italians were preparing to push with the local colonial troops, a few Regio Esercito divisions and the locally present Regia Aeronautica squadrons.
**The Predator and the Prey
Excerpts from Mark Campbell*, Shifting Dunes: The Second World War in the Deserts (Oxford University Press, 2013)**
The early months of 1942 had brought dire tidings for the forces opposed to the Anti-ComIntern Axis, as the nefarious conspiracy hatched by Pétain and his allies, along with his backers in Germany and Italy had come to fruition. The Popular Front government and the forces loyal to it had been pushed off the Métropole , and the French State lost no time in mobilizing its troops for the sanguinary campaign in the Soviet Union.
The United Kingdom, after a change of government and heart, declared war on Germany. And only Germany. At first sight, it would seem highly strange that the main ringleader of the Pact of Steel was being targeted and its primary partner in crime was being left out. The reason for it is rather shocking and a brutal indictment of the British intelligence agencies.
Other authors have written more comprehensive, dedicated and exhaustive works on the intelligence failures of the British Empire in the 1930’s. But for this author, there is a pressing necessity to discuss the repercussions of the aforementioned intelligence failures without going into too much detail about the Sempill Affair, so there is a necessity to make a diversion.
……..
Throughout the 1930’s, the Italians had built up an excellent intelligence network in the United Kingdom, in no small part due to the painstaking efforts of the arch-traitor, William Forbes-Sempill. The network managed to create such a veil of smoke that MI5 would remain occupied for the second half of the 30’s, preoccupied as they were with rooting out communist subversives. And MI6 was not exactly much different, with SIM operatives feeding them information on Abwehr informants in order to divert their attention. Similarly, on diplomatic levels, Italy had made every effort to keep Britain appeased. In spite of the suspicions and apprehensions of a part of British officials, the decision was taken not to declare war on Italy, showing exactly how well they had swallowed the bait prepared for them, along with the hook, line and sinker. This was a decision that would be regretted deeply later on.
……..
Even though Germany and the newly formed Franco-British Union were in a state of war with each other, surprisingly enough, Italy had stayed aloof. On 4 April, the Führer had expressed his anger at London rebuffing his overtures and demanded that the Duce and the Caudillo join him in his war against the FBU. While Mola was eager to join the Stahlpakt - however, he was reluctant to join the broader war effort before dealing with the Free Soviet Republic - Mussolini had maintained an alarming radio silence over the matter, leading to consternation, frustration and suspicion in Berlin as to his motives. The truth of the matter was that ever since Acerbo had sent the telegram informing Rome about Pétain’s intentions, the SIM and the Comando Supremo had been hard at work. The Comando Supremo had been busy sketching out a plan to conquer Britain’s Mediterranean possessions, and the SIM were working hard to ensure nobody other than the CS got to know of the aforementioned plan. As it turned out, that ironically included the Germans as well. The Italian military brass wished for the plan to be foolproof, and did not trust the Germans with the minutiae of this grand operation, only dropping a few vague, obscure hints which neither the Abwehr nor the new Oberkommando des Totalen Krieges could decipher.
The rest of the Regio Esercito and the Regia Aeronautica in Italy and the Regia Marina began to mobilize rapidly and as secretly as possible after the Führer had made his demand. The SIM made it clear that they would be able to provide a cover of two to three months at the most. It would only be a matter of time until MI5 and MI6 eventually caught on to the fact that they had been chasing wild geese all this while, and the actions of France would end up forcing their hand. Their concerns were not unfounded, as by the end of May, the French State and the Spanish State attacked the Spanish Free Soviet Republic. As it turned out, Comando Supremo was nearly done with mobilizing the troops by then and was practically ready to give the order to attack.
The codeword, “Aquila ”, was radioed across the troops awaiting orders on the three separate fronts. Incidentally, the Z.1007’s dropped the first bombs barely a handful of minutes after the Italian embassy in London delivered the declaration of war, leading to several conspiracy theories. But that is not the concern of this work.
……..
The garrison on Malta was facing very dire odds and were severely outnumbered and outgunned. Even so, they gave a good account of themselves, all things considered, as they grappled with the invasion force for a week. However, it was all they could do to survive as the landing force and the paratroopers steadily mowed down all opposition in their way like grass, with overpowering aerial and naval supremacy, achieved due to the local RAF airfield being aggressively bombed and strafed by the Regia Aeronautica and the Mediterranean Fleet falling into the trap prepared for it by the Regia Marina.
As two grueling, nightmarish weeks passed, Malta eventually fell, and right on its heels, disaster struck the Royal Navy. The waters of the Ionian Sea bore witness to a vicious trade of naval munitions that in the end, resulted in two British battleships taking very heavy damage, and a third being sunk outright, along with a carrier. This was to have telling consequences in the subsequent Battle of the Levantine Sea, where the Mediterranean Fleet would receive yet another thrashing at the hands of the Regia Marina , now fully supported by the turncoat vessels of the Marine Nationale.
……..
In Egypt, the advance initially fared well, with a rapid thrust through the Halfaya Pass, aimed at throwing the defenders off balance and seizing operational initiative. Sollum and Sidi Barrani fell quickly enough, as the Eighth Army struggled to get an understanding of the situation. However, after Mersa Matruh, the offensive stalled. The 10th Army ran into a British tank they were not ready to face in this front. The small numbers of Daphne infantry tanks, working in tandem with the Chimeras and the Matildas, caused considerable grief for the Italian armored divisions and their P24/38 tanks, which simply did not possess the firepower needed to penetrate the Matilda’s frontal armor, nevermind the Chimera and even less so the Daphne. Only the 90 mm Cannone da 90/53 anti-aircraft guns could pose a threat to the Commonwealth armored units, but they were not present in sufficiently large numbers in the 10th Army, with the bulk of them being earmarked for the Italian forces in the USSR. Still, the Italians wisened up and managed to inflict devastating losses on the Eighth Army, leaving (General) Ritchie with fewer Chimeras and Daphnes than he would have preferred to have had for the imminent battle at El Alamein. It was not made any better by the squadrons of Grifone s and the newly introduced Temporale s (6) swatting away the Spitfires and Hurricanes from the skies, leaving the armor and the infantry open to strafing attacks and bombing runs. But the losses to British tankers hung heavy on the minds of the generals in charge of the 10th Army.
Berti contemplated pausing the offensive, considering how many tanks they had lost in action. But Tellera was against the idea. “The British may have broken our tanks, but they are not exactly in a position of strength themselves. Have not they lost their heavy tanks to us? Have not our pilots shot their planes out of the sky? If we delay any longer, we will only be handing over victory to the enemy when we could be dictating terms to their commanders in Cairo. No, I say, we must seize the opportunity and act, before it is gone for good.”, he said forcefully to the others in the command tent. Bergonzoli managed to talk some sense into him, pointing out that their losses would not allow for an immediate assault, and it would take at least 30 to 40 days to replenish the casualties suffered earlier. An attack on El Alamein, thus, was not in the cards until the end of August.
……..
The Battle of El Alamein, or the Miracle of El Alamein as it is known to some, was a turning point in the War in the Desert. In spite of a vicious attack by the 10th Army, the Eighth Army held firm. The intent was to make the Regio Esercito bleed as much as possible at Alamein and afterwards, as the Egyptian government prepared to evacuate post-haste, in order to avoid the fate of their French counterparts. In this regard, they were successful, considering that the Tenth Army limped their way to the Sinai by the beginning of October, barely four weeks after the gruesome action at Alamein. A month and a half later, they would be advancing through Palestine; however, the advance would be glacial, due to the severe attrition and fatigue suffered in the forced march to the Suez Canal and also the ferocious resistance of the Haganah. Barely a month later, Palestine would be free of any Entente presence, but this victory actually did Mussolini more harm than good, as only a month later, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine would be formed, and prove to be a consistent thorn in the side of the Italian occupation in Palestine in the future. Italy thus entered 1943 in a state of war with a Commonwealth that had deeper manpower reserves, albeit not fully mobilised, and having chased the Royal Navy gloriously out of the Mediterranean and entered the Levant, they could well nigh afford to be consumed by their hubris and belief that London would surrender after the brutal shock of the Trident Offensive, as well as the Japanese running riot in the Far East. But they had not anticipated that the newly formed Franco-British Union would keep fighting, in spite of the daunting odds.
1.IOTL, in an attempt to curry favor with Germany, Mussolini adopted a weird Nordic-Mediterranean racial theory. This doesn’t happen ITTL, primarily due to the fact that Germany isn’t their only ally and backer this time around, so the Fascists feel less obligated to indulge the failed artist with a toothbrush mustache.
2.A joint project between Boeing and Macchi. Equivalent to and reminiscent of the OTL Supermarine Spitfire.
3.Basically the P26/40 of OTL, minus the sloped armor, initially meant for anti-personnel purposes, equipped with a torsion bar suspension. Equivalent to the OTL Panzer IV.
4.A tank designed by Fiat intended to destroy enemy tanks, equipped with a leaf-spring suspension. Equivalent to the OTL Panzer III.
5.This division did not exist IOTL.
6.The Boeing W.204 Temporale , an advanced fighter aircraft designed solo by Boeing Aeronautica S.p.A.. Roughly equivalent to the Focke-Wulf Ta-190 Würger. *[WPA]: Works Progress Administration *[NBI]: National Bureau of Investigation
Bình luận
0